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THE MENTAL SPHERE


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OVERVIEW

The mental ingenuity and physical handicraft of the human species have combined to create the
human sphere. The products of the human mind – society, culture, ethics, economics, religion,
science and technology – are factors that help to shape the environment and in part determine its
present and future use. Difficult issues can arise when interested groups of people decide the best
way of tackling perceived environmental crises, whether at a particular place, a region or globally.
These knotty issues have pragmatic and moral dimensions.

Three groups of topics illustrate the issues. The first group involves the people–environment themes of environmentalism, sustainability, ecosystem management, traditional ecological knowledge and the ‘new conservation’. The last of these is a shift in biodiversity conservation from Nature-centred, exclusive, protected areas toward conservation centred more on people or communities. The second group centres around the international programmes designed to investigate the environment and environmental change, for instance the World Climate Research Programme (WCRP), the International Geosphere–Biosphere Programme (IGBP), the International Human Dimensions Programme (IHDP), and DIVERSITAS, an international programme of biodiversity science. The third group comprises centres that investigate global change, such as the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research, Germany, the Earth System Science Center at Pennsylvania State University, USA, and the Hadley Centre in the UK.


LEARNING OUTCOMES

After reading this chapter, you should be able to understand:

• The chief themes focusing on people–environment interactions
• Views espoused by different kinds of environmentalist
• The idea of sustainability
• The rationale behind ecosystem management as a way of unifying ecological, economic
  and social needs
• The nature of traditional ecological knowledge and its relation to scientific knowledge
• The reasons for setting up international research programmes to study global
  environmental change from an interdisciplinary standpoint
• The rationale behind and the scope of centres of research for global change.

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SUMMARY

Human minds have responded to global environmental threats. The response appears in the environmental movement, and in notions of sustainability, ecosystem management, traditional ecological knowledge and the new conservation. A common focus of these topics is the placing of human societies and economies on an equal footing with the natural world, so that social and
cultural needs, economic needs and ecological needs ‘balance’ in a sustainable way.

Another response of the human intellect to pressures on the global environment is the setting up of international programmes to tackle environmental problems. The big players are the International Geosphere–Biosphere Programme (IGBP), the World Climate Research Programme (WCRP), the International Human Dimensions Programme (IHDP) and DIVERSITAS, an international programme of biodiversity science. Several research centres also have global change as their prime concern. Examples are the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research, Germany, and the Earth System Science Center at Pennsylvania State University, USA. Others, such as the Hadley Centre in the UK, have an interest in global issues, but also focus on regional changes.



QUESTIONS

1. Why does environmentalism cover such    a wide range of views? 4. Are traditional ecological knowledge and    scientific knowledge reconcilable? 2. What is sustainability? 5. What are the pros and cons of     international programmes for studying the     environment? 3. To what extent does ecosystem    management offer a sustainable approach    to conservation?

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FURTHER READING

• Berkes, F. (1999) Sacred Ecology: Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Resource Management. Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis.
  A worthwhile text on indigenous knowledge and its applications in natural resource management.
  
• Brown, K. (2003) ‘Three challenges for a real people-centred conservation’. Global Ecology and Biogeography 12, 89–92.
  A useful appraisal of the ‘new conservation’.
  
• Inglis, J. T. (ed.) (1993) Traditional Ecological Knowledge: Concepts and Studies. Ottawa, Canada: International Development Research Centre (IDRC).
  A good source book.
  
• Miller, K. R. (1996) Balancing the Scales: Guidelines for Increasing Biodiversity’s Chances Through Bioregional Management. Washington DC: World Resources Institute.
  Includes discussion of ecosystem management.
  
• Reid, D (1995) Sustainable Development: An Introductory Guide. London: Earthscan.
  A good place to start learning about sustainable development. Sillitoe, P. (2000)
  Indigenous Knowledge
  
• Development in Bangladesh: Present and Future. Rugby: Intermediate Technology Development Group (ITDG) Publishing.
  A rich collection of examples of traditional ecological knowledge applied to development in Bangladesh.
  
• Sachs, W., Loske, R. and Linz, M. (1998) Greening the North – A Post-Industrial Blueprint for Ecology and Equity. London and New York: Zed Books.
  Worth a look.
  
• Sillitoe, P., Bicker, A. and Pottier, J. (eds) (2002) Participating in Development: Approaches to Indigenous Knowledge. London and New York: Routledge.
  An anthropological slant on traditional ecological knowledge.
  
• Satterthwaite, D. (ed.) (1999) The Earthscan Reader in Sustainable Cities. London: Earthscan.
  Chapters deal with key issues of sustainable cities and sustainable urban development, including environmental justice, health, transport, industry and designing with Nature.